were to be (future) sheep. The man owns what his family gives him, and what he had saved for himself. Witherspoon quotes Wyman's assessment of the bundle's importance: (Reichard 1950: 29) There are two types of hogans: a female hogan with a round top, used for living and ceremonies, and a male hogan with a forked top, which is used for a sweat house (Beck 1992: 287). Metaphorically, Changing Woman is the model mother which all human mothers strive to emulate. One myth, which Stevenson recorded, places Talking God and another deity as created by corn from Changing Woman and her sister: mirage and earth rising haze. This skin developed into two adult males and two females, from whom descended the clan Honghahnii, meaning He Walks Around One Clan. This makes sense when considered as an offspring of the initiate as Changing Woman (32). Witherspoon quotes Wyman's assessment of the bundle's importance: are returned to diyinni in the form of offerings. Works Cited: She is at the top of the Dine pantheon as the deity most likely to help individuals in need. Mankind. As they reached the foot of the mountain, they saw an old woman. This "static reality" is identifiable with the rigidly structured Navajo ceremonial life, which for the most part is male-dominated. Monster Slayer. 1 University of New Mexico,Albuquerque, NM 87131, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, (505) 277-0111AccessibilityContact UNMLegalComments white corn, and her sister an ear of yellow corn, After this, elders instruct the couple about the nuances of married life and everyone partakes in the wedding feast (Locke 1976: 23). Moreover, she is credited with bestowing the Blessingway ceremony, the Kinaald, sheep, and corn upon humanity, thereby protecting not only Dine spiritual health, but basic subsistence as well. The clan system is vital to Dine kinship and social system; it not only mandates marriage possibilities, but also extends the circle of a Dine individual to include kin from several different approaches. This relationship is partially defined by the father's distance from and assistance to his children, considerations manifested first in the Sun's first encounters with his children, the twins. and corn pollen are also the food of diyinni, and these Mythically, Sun is said to be corn's father and Lightning its mother (Reichard 1950: 27). After she is dressed, older females at the ceremony give her a vigorous massage, which is called "molding" the girl. The latter term can be further divided into the Dine, the Navajo, and the ana'', or non-Navajos. Moreover, she is credited with bestowing the Blessingway ceremony, the Kinaald, sheep, and corn upon humanity, thereby protecting not only Dine spiritual health, but basic subsistence as well. But they did set her to sighing. their meanings provide the major conceptual framework Even after this incident, however, the Sun could never really be close to his children. She later appropriates the bundle for herself when she moves to the Sun's house in the West, where she creates the Dine and other objects of great importance to Dine livelihood (87). The Hero Twins are also known in English as "Monster Slayer" and "Born for Water," sons of Changing Woman and the Sun Bearer. One of the most important occurrences is when both the bride and groom eat corn mush (or meal) from the wedding basket, thereby signifying that they are joined together. 5 There is no equivalent for males in Navajo culture. Man, of course, 6 For a longer discussion of hogans, please see page Clans also define the larger circle of an individual's relatives, which is necessary for identifying responsibility in ceremonial cooperation (Kluckhohn 1946: 112). After this, elders instruct the couple about the nuances of married life and everyone partakes in the wedding feast (Locke 1976: 23). Witherspoon quotes Wyman's assessment of the bundle's importance: These three scholars further assert that corn pollen, which is also yellow, is the "element which brings peace and plenty, long life, and security" (17). and corn pollen are also the food of diyinni, and these She is also the benevolent being who creates the first Navajo of the four original clans and corn and is therefore known for bringing fertility and regeneration into the world. -Navajo. When Changing Woman placed an ear of Traditionally, the child is placed in a cradleboard such as the one First Man placed Monster Slayer in upon his birth. Dine bahane'. The latter term can be further divided into the Dine, the Navajo, and the ana'', or non-Navajos. Farella, John R., 1984. "It is not just a remembrance or reenactment of mythical time, nor is the singer just 'identifying' with the gods. 1). Aside from running, the girl's main duty is to grind the corn for the huge cake, called an alkaan, that will be eaten on the ceremony's final day. In this section their symbolic implications will be explored in the larger framework of Dine subsistence and economics. Witherspoon asserts that these terms have two broad definitions: a set of relationships that revolves around the act of giving birth; and a set of behavioral codes defined by "the generous giving of both physical and emotional sustenance" (94). giving birth, which regulated our progress, with this Later he visits them, and upon learning that they retained his gift, he says, "That is good, for corn is your symbol of fertility and life" (Reichard 1950: 23). NCC Press. Throughout this paper, Dine will refer to the Navajo people, and Diyin Dine to the Holy People. The Savage Mind. Farella, John R., 1984. Princeton UP. 3 In Zolbrod's version, White Shell Woman and Changing Woman are sisters; some versions call her White Shell Woman instead of Changing Woman, other sources acknowledge that they are different names for the same deity. Then it is baked in a pit, which is symbolic of a woman's womb (earth=woman). Routledge Books. After she created all of these people, she took them with her to live in the West.4. The symbolism of the color yellow has been studied by Newcomb, Fisher and Wheelwright, who assert that yellow is "the color of the female wind and of the ripened harvest and the soft autumnal rain" (qtd. the essential domestic plant; there is no wild form. Changing Woman was irritated and said "your father is a round cactus then. In some myths, Changing Woman is said to be born of the bundle (Farella 1984: 87). University of Chicago Press. the essential domestic plant; there is no wild form. Changing Woman created the original clans by rubbing off pieces of her epidermis in a symbolic manner. Griffin-Pierce, Trudy, 1992. Witherspoon says, "at best, a father is a helpful friend, a good teacher, and a strong disciplinarian; at worst, he is a potential enemy, an undependable friend, or an unreliable ally" (1975: 34). Mythically, Sun is said to be corn's father and Lightning its mother (Reichard 1950: 27). Levi-Strauss, Claude, 1976. Therefore, it performs the same functions as Changing Woman, and is said to be Changing Woman's gift to humanity. Pragmatic Implications: First Man's bundle is also said to contain soil from each of the four sacred mountains ringing the reservation. This relationship is partially defined by the father's distance from and assistance to his children, considerations manifested first in the Sun's first encounters with his children, the twins. Navajo Kinship and Marriage. This relationship is partially defined by the father's distance from and assistance to his children, considerations manifested first in the Sun's first encounters with his children, the twins. First Man's bundle is also said to contain soil from each of the four sacred mountains ringing the reservation. Then it is baked in a pit, which is symbolic of a woman's womb (earth=woman). Lincoln asserts that "given its shape, color, and relation to fire, it must be seen as a solar image" (Lincoln 1981: 32). Haile provides one myth in which First Man is dismayed at his forgetfulness when he leaves his medicine in a lower world: The language describing the bundle mirrors that describing Changing Woman; both make reproduction possible in a structured way. (Farella 1984: 90) "We must have a father and we need to know who he is" they responded. Harvard UP. of blessings, like the magic bundle of First Man. The Navajo world is stringently gendered, with male objects characterized by a "static reality," and females an "active reality" (Witherspoon 1977: 141). Dine bahane'. Basic Books. "So, you are the warrior boys. Aronilth, Wilson, 1991. Throughout all these myths, Changing Woman is identified with both creation and protection. On the reservation, certain places are open to everyone, like timber or watering areas. At the metaphysical level, Changing Woman is the alleged product of the union between Sa'ah Naaghaii (First Boy) who represents thought, and Bik'eh H-zh- (First Girl) who represents speech (Witherspoon 1977: 17). Clans regulate marriage; no two individuals who share the same "matrilineal descent identity" should marry. John Farella asserts that the sacred bundle is more than just a provider of luxuries. "Painting of a Sandpainting of First Man and First Woman," photograph by Gerald Nailor, 1936, Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 163. The Sun and his associated symbols and Dine children address their father as an in-law, or shaadaani. Routledge Books. A01 The Blessing Way (01-07) p. 45 The Symbolism of Corn: Witherspoon, Gary, 1977. There are over sixty clans today (Kluckhohn 1946: 111). The Sun and his associated symbols and A07 The Dark Wind (04-06) p. 186, A08 The Ghostway (05-03) p. 30 In the center of my white shell hogan I am here. The same language used to characterize her is used to describe other relationships and objects as well, such as the sacred mountain bundle. The Kinaald: Yellow corn is associated with females, a fact which is demonstrated in several ceremonies. When they passed all his grueling tests, with Nilch'i the Wind's aid, he was surprised and proud, and gave them gifts to help overcome the monsters (Zolbrod 1984: 212). without the thing which regulated our lives, by means To an individual it is his "medicine," the source Farella believes that h-zh--j' is even more vital than Kluckhohn and Leighton depict because it creates, not just reiterates. The latter term can be further divided into the Dine, the Navajo, and the ana'', or non-Navajos. The alkaan's removal from the pit is symbolic of many things: birth, the growth of vegetation, and the emergence of the Holy People into the present world (Lincoln 1981:32). with their eyes whenever she moved her hands abalone, and jet (jewels) while they followed her Navajo Kinship and Marriage. Is dzn naadleeshe' went inside and lay there and as the sun came up, the sun shone between her legs. Sa'ah naaghaii, which translates to "the capacity of all life and living things to achieve immortality through reproduction," and bik'eh h-zh-, which "represents the peace and harmony essential to the perpetuation of all living species" (Witherspoon 1977:18) are at the heart of Dine ideology and Changing Woman is the deific substantiation of this ideology, which gets renewed with every season and every birth. ripening, which regulated the raining, which regulated The clan system is vital to Dine kinship and social system; it not only mandates marriage possibilities, but also extends the circle of a Dine individual to include kin from several different approaches. For more information, consult Witherspoon 1975:40. One of his rays went into her. 5 There is no equivalent for males in Navajo culture. NCC Press. Clans also define the larger circle of an individual's relatives, which is necessary for identifying responsibility in ceremonial cooperation (Kluckhohn 1946: 112). (1984:30) One myth of Changing Woman's infancy insists that she was fed corn pollen to have the "power of regeneration" (17). Language and Art in the Navajo Universe. 2 For a classification of ceremonies, consult Reichard 1950: 314-337. Even after this incident, however, the Sun could never really be close to his children. Levi-Strauss, Claude, 1966. Language and Art in the Navajo Universe. greatly in creation. on the mountain where the fogs meet, 'the corn Princeton UP. abalone, and jet (jewels) while they followed her At the metaphysical level, Changing Woman is the alleged product of the union between Sa'ah Naaghaii (First Boy) who represents thought, and Bik'eh H-zh- (First Girl) who represents speech (Witherspoon 1977: 17). Griffin-Pierce, Trudy, 1992. A new hogan is constructed in which the wedding takes place and where the newlyweds will retire after the ceremony. The Book of the Navajo. Witherspoon, Gary, 1975. 2 For a classification of ceremonies, consult Reichard 1950: 314-337. said First Man. It can (Haile qtd. Lincoln asserts, "[The cake] contains the sun and earth; male and female; the Holy People, first of all beings; corn, and by extension vegetation; the cardinal points; zenith and nadar" (32). As such, it is used to animate all "natural phenomena," such as the seasons and the rain (80). The same language used to characterize her is used to describe other relationships and objects as well, such as the sacred mountain bundle. The Navajo. (1975: 33). From this the soil soaked spot herbs grew which The conception of the deities involved not only corn, but also water (in the fog) and the Sun. The batter is blessed with cornmeal and covered with husks, "in the center of which the initiand places another corn-husk cross oriented to the cardinal points. Levi-Strauss, Claude, 1976. The Kinaald: One of the most important occurrences is when both the bride and groom eat corn mush (or meal) from the wedding basket, thereby signifying that they are joined together. According to Zolbrod, Changing Woman is introduced into the Navajo Creation story at a time of chaos and infertility. Therefore, the Navajo social structure is modeled on this view of the cosmos. Volume II. Douglas, Mary, 1966. Witherspoon asserts that the mother-child bond is the closest in Navajo kinship: "Mother and child are bound together by the most intense, the most diffuse, and the most enduring solidarity to be found in Navajo culture" (1975: 15). Mountain Soil Bundle: Hogans are characterized by a rich tradition of symbolism. Navajo Religion. On the reservation, certain places are open to everyone, like timber or watering areas. The hogan has its creation in Navajo Mythology, when First Man creates it upon emergence into this world. and corn pollen are also the food of diyinni, and these Furthermore, First Man's "medicine" began in the underworld and provided for the genesis upwards into the different worlds (69). the amniotic fluidsoaked into the soil right there. The man owns what his family gives him, and what he had saved for himself. When they passed all his grueling tests, with Nilch'i the Wind's aid, he was surprised and proud, and gave them gifts to help overcome the monsters (Zolbrod 1984: 212). The batter is blessed with cornmeal and covered with husks, "in the center of which the initiand places another corn-husk cross oriented to the cardinal points. He says that the bundle, which began with First Man before emergence, provides "temporal and spatial continuity for the Navajo" (Farella 1984: 69). Witherspoon asserts that these terms have two broad definitions: a set of relationships that revolves around the act of giving birth; and a set of behavioral codes defined by "the generous giving of both physical and emotional sustenance" (94). (Haile qtd. Even after this incident, however, the Sun could never really be close to his children. Witherspoon asserts that "the sheep herd is a symbol of the life, wealth, vitality, and integration of the subsistence residential unit" (1975:87). Traditionally, the child is placed in a cradleboard such as the one First Man placed Monster Slayer in upon his birth. in Witherspoon 1975: 17).7 Foundation of Navajo Culture. Kluckhohn, Clyde and Dorothea Leighton, 1974. Step-by-step explanation. Therefore, one may gage the healthiness and wealth of any given unit of Dine by the appearance of their sheep. lifeHe speaks of it as "our mother" because Changing The unit's main functions are to "provide its members with a place of residence and a source of subsistence" (72). Changing Woman created the original clans by rubbing off pieces of her epidermis in a symbolic manner. Later he visits them, and upon learning that they retained his gift, he says, "That is good, for corn is your symbol of fertility and life" (Reichard 1950: 23). Clans also define the larger circle of an individual's relatives, which is necessary for identifying responsibility in ceremonial cooperation (Kluckhohn 1946: 112). Sometimes Monster Slayer is referred to as The Hero Twin (singular), probably because he does most of the fighting. A05 Listening Woman (02-13) p. 155 Therefore, the soil in the bundle, wet with dew, gives the bundle fecundity. The symbolism of the color yellow has been studied by Newcomb, Fisher and Wheelwright, who assert that yellow is "the color of the female wind and of the ripened harvest and the soft autumnal rain" (qtd. 504-505, Vol. The Kinaald puts the Navajo girl on the path to adulthood, which culminates in the wedding ceremony. Throughout all these myths, Changing Woman is identified with both creation and protection. According to legend, Changing Woman changes continuously but never dies. Later he visits them, and upon learning that they retained his gift, he says, "That is good, for corn is your symbol of fertility and life" (Reichard 1950: 23). Hogans are characterized by a rich tradition of symbolism. Then it is baked in a pit, which is symbolic of a woman's womb (earth=woman). When the twins Monster Slayer and Born for Water needed help to say the monsters, they approached the Sun, their father, and asked for his aid. She will be in charge of vegetation everywhere for the benefit of Earth people" (Reichard 1950: 407). Kluckhohn and Leighton report that there are "exceedingly few violations of these prohibitions," for "Navahos treat incest of this sort and witchcraft as the most repulsive of crimes" (1946:112). (our father). Princeton UP. This she rubbed (on This takes place in the hogan, which is arranged in ceremonial fashion (please refer to Fig. It is organized around a head mother, a certain tract of land, and the sheep herd (72). her hands and then) on the white shell, the turquoise, Reichard, Gladys A, 1950. Conclusion: Unless it is cultivated, it cannot survive. The soil is also the earth's flesh" (Farella 1984: 182). University of New Mexico Press. Witherspoon asserts that the mother-child bond is the closest in Navajo kinship: "Mother and child are bound together by the most intense, the most diffuse, and the most enduring solidarity to be found in Navajo culture" (1975: 15). Hogans are characterized by a rich tradition of symbolism. With his brother, Xbalanque, he rids the pre-human world of all manner of villainous gods, including Seven Macaw, Zipacna, One Death, and Seven Death. in Farella 1984: 83). for the Navajo definition of fatherhood. If the flock is well-fed and cared for, then the social dynamics of the unit will similarly be harmonious and productive. 10. Man, of course, (1975: 33). conceived, the white corn giving birth to Talking Witherspoon, Gary, 1977. The Dine consider the hogan to be "a living entity, with the smokehole as its breathing hole; this is where prayers emerge and raise to the heavens" (Griffin-Pierce 1992: 92). Structural Anthropology. Man, of course, She busied herself with what is called earth Navajo Religion. Routledge Books. After the bundle is retrieved from the watery world, First Man reveals the items to the other diyinii: "When he opened it to show them there was a perfectly kernelled white shell corn ear, a perfectly kernelled turquoise ear of corn, a perfectly kernelled abalone ear of corn, and a perfectly kernelled jet ear of corn" (Wyman qtd. After dancing on the tops of these mountains, she sits down and rubs an "outer layer of skin from under her left arm with her right hand" (Zolbrod 1984: 313). with prayers and songs the next day, an all-night Metaphorically, the qualities of nurturing and fertility are applicable to several other areas of Navajo culture, which are all called shim in Navajo (Witherspoon 1977: 91). Therefore, one may gage the healthiness and wealth of any given unit of Dine by the appearance of their sheep. Her Kinaald, or puberty ceremony, is common for young girls to emulate upon their first menses, and her gentle benevolence is held to be the example for all women to strive towards. The Twins in the story are a pair of. Woman and her Blessingway gave it to us. She walked slowly towards them, leaning on her cane. Unless it is cultivated, it cannot survive. Therefore, the Navajo social structure is modeled on this view of the cosmos. Earth is My Mother, Sky Is My Father;: Space, Time, and Astronomy in Navajo Sandpainting. (Reichard 1950: 29) The Dine consider the hogan to be "a living entity, with the smokehole as its breathing hole; this is where prayers emerge and raise to the heavens" (Griffin-Pierce 1992: 92). (1984:30) In some stories she has a sister, White Shell Woman (Yoolgai asdz), who symbolizes the rain clouds. In fact, Kluckhohn reports that a family has at least one h-zh--j' every six months. Witherspoon asserts that "the sheep herd is a symbol of the life, wealth, vitality, and integration of the subsistence residential unit" (1975:87). Hunahpu is one of the hero twins in the Popol Vuh. Zolbrod, Paul G, 1984. In the Dine creation story, Changing Woman, from the moment of her birth to her retirement to the Sun's house in the West, is equated with a benevolent fertility integral to the continuation of Dine culture. Reichard records a myth in which Talking God gives corn to Whiteshell Woman and her sister Turquoise woman, saying, "There is no better thing than this in the world, for it is the gift of life." The corn's birthing process is similar to that of Changing Woman and Whiteshell Woman delivering Monster Slayer and {Water Child}. Reichard, Gladys A, 1950. Book 2 The Hero Twins appear. Gill, Sam D. Witherspoon says, "at best, a father is a helpful friend, a good teacher, and a strong disciplinarian; at worst, he is a potential enemy, an undependable friend, or an unreliable ally" (1975: 34). The alkaan's removal from the pit is symbolic of many things: birth, the growth of vegetation, and the emergence of the Holy People into the present world (Lincoln 1981:32). Griffin-Pierce, Trudy, 1992. None of these variations seems to influence the real substance of the story dramatically. Sa'ah naaghaii, which translates to "the capacity of all life and living things to achieve immortality through reproduction," and bik'eh h-zh-, which "represents the peace and harmony essential to the perpetuation of all living species" (Witherspoon 1977:18) are at the heart of Dine ideology and Changing Woman is the deific substantiation of this ideology, which gets renewed with every season and every birth. her hands and then) on the white shell, the turquoise, (1975: 33). with it away from themThe water which she sprinkled She later appropriates the bundle for herself when she moves to the Sun's house in the West, where she creates the Dine and other objects of great importance to Dine livelihood (87). Witherspoon asserts that Changing Woman is the child of First Boy (Sa'ah Naaghaii) who represents thought, and First Girl (Bik'eh H-zh-), who represents speech (1977: 17). The fourth day is devoted to singing sacred Blessingway and "free" songs. (Haile qtd. A woman named Trinity contacts Neo and tells him of "the matrix". Metaphorically, the qualities of nurturing and fertility are applicable to several other areas of Navajo culture, which are all called shim in Navajo (Witherspoon 1977: 91). Princeton UP. The Symbolism of Corn: Witherspoon comments, The hogan has its creation in Navajo Mythology, when First Man creates it upon emergence into this world. Mythically, Sun is said to be corn's father and Lightning its mother (Reichard 1950: 27). Levi-Strauss, Claude, 1976. Locke, Raymond Friday, 1992. Zolbrod, Paul G, 1984. It is important to remember that no one is forced to include his or her sheep in the flock--it is done on an independent voluntary basis, which reinforces the significance of the inclusion. He denied any paternity and put the twins through a rigorous cycle of tests. After the singing, the cake is unearthed and a first piece removed from the east direction. Clans regulate marriage; no two individuals who share the same "matrilineal descent identity" should marry. Pima Stories of the Beginning of the World. The unit's main functions are to "provide its members with a place of residence and a source of subsistence" (72). Every mother takes as her model Changing Woman and tries to treat her child as Changing Woman treated Monster Slayer. It is "precautionary, protecting, prophylactic--not a cure" (212). Reichard, Gladys A, 1950. rest periodically on mountain tops, which figure In contemporary life, hogans are usually used for ceremonies, and the Navajo living space is in a house or trailer close by. Is organized Around a head mother, a certain tract of land, and ana. Which culminates in the Popol Vuh 1946: 111 ) her child as Changing Woman ( Yoolgai )... The magic bundle of First Man 's bundle is more than just a or. A, 1950 182 ) Navajo girl on the reservation is symbolic of a Woman 's womb ( ). 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